Antibiotics by diagnosis

Bone and Joint

Open Fracture

Cefazolin (Ancef) 2g IV[1][2]

AND

Gentamicin 300 mg (1-1.7mg/kg) IV (especially if wound is dirty)

Cardiovascular

Endocarditis

Native Valves

Options:[3]

Suspected MRSA:[3]

Prosthetic Valves (Early)

Early prosthetic valve endocarditis defined as < 12 months post surgery[3]

IV Drug User without Prosthetic Valve

Prosthetic Valve (Late)

Late prosthetic valve endocarditis defined as ≥ 12 months post surgery[3]
  • Same as native valve endocarditis empiric therapy

Dental Procedure Prophylaxis

All antibiotics options are given as a single dose 1 hour prior to the dental procedure

Options:[4]

Pediatric Dosing:

Pediatric Empiric

CNS

Meningitis

Neonates (up to 1 month of age)[5]

MRSA is uncommon in the neonate

  • Ampicillin 75mg/kg IV q6hrs PLUS
  • Cefotaxime 50mg/kg IV q6hrs OR 2.5mg/kg IV q8hrs
    • Per AAP, ceftazidime 50mg/kg IV (q12hr for babies < 8 days of age, q8hr for >7 days old) is a reasonable alternative to cefotaxime, offering virtually the same coverage for enteric bacilli and is FDA approved for all age groups[6]
  • If suspecting S. pneumoniae or MRSA, add standard neonatal dosing
  • Consider acyclovir for HSV

> 1 month old[7]

Alternatives (e.g. penicillin/cephalosporin allergy):

Adult < 50 yr[8]

Adult > 50 yr and Immunocompromised[9]

Post Procedural (or penetrating trauma)[11]

Cryptococcosis Meningitis

Options

  • Amphotericin B 1mg/kg IV once daily AND Flucytosine 25mg/kg PO q6hrs daily
  • Amphotericin B 5mg/kg IV once daily AND Flucytosine 25mg/kg PO q6hrs daily

Meningitis with severe PCN allergy

Meningitis with VP shunt

Neisseria meningitidis Prophylaxis

  • Ceftriaxone 250mg IM once
  • Ceftriaxone 125mg IM once (if <=15yr)
  • Ciprofloxacin 500mg PO once
  • Rifampin 600 mg PO BID x 2 days
  • Rifampin <1mo: 5mg/kg PO BID x 2 days; >=1mo: 10mg/kg PO BID x 2 days
  • Ampicillin/Sulbactam 400mg ampicillin/kg/day IM/IV divided q6 hours; First Dose: 100mg ampicillin/kg IM/IV x 1 (150mg Unasyn/kg IM/IV x 1); Max: 2000mg ampicillin (3000mg Unasyn) per DOSE
  • Meropenem 2g IV every 8 hours.
  • Nafcillin 100-200mg/kg/day IV divided q4-6h; Max: 12 g/day

Tetanus

Metronidazole:

(<1200g)

  • 7.5 mg/kg PO/IV q48h
  • First Dose: 7.5 mg/kg PO/IV x 1

(>1200g AND <1 Month Old)

  • <7 days old
    • 7.5-15 mg/kg/day PO/IV q12-24h
    • First Dose: 7.5-15 mg/kg PO/IV x 1
  • >7 days old
    • 15-30 mg/kg/day PO/IV q12h
    • First Dose: 7.5-15 mg/kg PO/IV x 1

(>1 Month Old)

  • 30 mg/kg/day PO/IV q6h
  • First Dose: 7.5 mg/kg PO/IV x 1
  • Max: 4 g/day

ENT

Otitis Media

Initial Treatment

High Dose Amoxicillin

  • <2 months
    • Amoxicillin 30mg/kg/day PO divided q12h x 10 days
    • First Dose: 15mg/kg PO x 1
  • 2 months - 5 years
    • Amoxicillin 80-90mg/kg/day PO divided q12h x 10 days
    • First Dose: 40-45mg/kg PO x 1
    • Max: 1000mg/dose
  • 6-12 years
    • Amoxicillin 80-90mg/kg/day PO divided q12h x 5-10 days
    • First Dose: 40-45mg/kg/day PO x 1
    • Max: 1000mg/dose

Treatment during prior Month

  1. If amoxicillin taken in past 30 days, Amoxicillin/Clavulanate
    • 80-90mg of amoxicillin per kg/day PO divided BID x 7-10 days
    • Clavulanate increases vomiting/diarrhea
  2. Cefdinir 14mg/kg/day BID x7-10 days
  3. Cefpodoxime 10mg/kg PO daily x7-10 days
  4. Cefuroxime 15mg/kg PO BID x7-10 days
  5. Cefprozil 15mg/kg PO BID x7-10 days

Otitis/Conjunctivitis

  • Suggestive of non-typeable H.flu
  1. Amoxicillin/Clavulanate
    • 80-90mg of amoxicillin per kg/day PO divided BID x 7-10 days
    • Clavulanate increases vomiting/diarrhea

Treatment Failure

defined as treatment during the prior 7-10 days

  1. Amoxicillin/Clavulanate 80-90mg of amoxicillin per kg/day PO divided BID x 7-10 days
  2. Ceftriaxone 50mg/kg IM once as single injection x 3 days
    • Use if cannot tolerate PO

Penicillin Allergy

  1. Azithromycin 10mg/kg/day x 1 day and 5mg/kg/day x 4 remaining days
  2. Clarithromycin 7.5mg/kg PO BID x 10 days
  3. Clindamycin 10mg/kg PO three times daily
  • Cephalexin 75-100mg/kg/day PO divided q12h x 10 days; Max: 4,000mg/24h

Otitis Externa

  1. Ofloxacin 5 drops in affected ear BID x 7 days (Floxin otic)[12]
    • Safe with perforations
  2. Ciprofloxacin-hydrocortisone 3 drops in affected ear BID x 7 days
    • Contains hydrocortisone to promote faster healing
    • Not recommended for perforation since non-sterile preparation
  3. Ciprofloxacin-dexamethasone 4 drops in affected ear BID x 7 days
    • Similar to Cipro HC but safe for perforations
    • Often more expensive
  4. Cortisporin otic 4 drops in ear TID-QID x 7days (neomycin/polymixin B/hydrocortisone)
    • Use suspension (NOT solution) if possibility of perforation
    • Animal studies suggest possible toxicity from the neomycin although rigorous data is lacking[13]

Pediatric: Same topical regimens apply to children

  1. Ofloxacin 5 drops (>12yr) or 3 drops (<12yr) in affected ear BID x 7 days
  2. Ciprofloxacin 3-4 drops in affected ear BID x 7 days (with dexamethasone or hydrocortisone)

Streptococcal Pharyngitis

Treatment can be delayed for up to 9 days and still prevent major sequelae

Penicillin Options:

Penicillin allergic (mild):

Penicillin allergic (anaphylaxis):[14]

  • Clindamycin 7 mg/kg/dose TID (maximum = 300 mg/dose) x 10 days[20]
  • Azithromycin 12 mg/kg PO once (maximum = 500 mg), then 6 mg/kg (max=250 mg) once daily for the next 4 days[21]
  • Clarithromycin 7.5 mg/kg/dose PO BID (maximum = 250 mg/dose) x 10 days[22]


Pediatric Dosing:

  • Amoxicillin 50mg/kg PO once daily x 10 days (max 1000mg)
  • Penicillin V <27kg: 250mg PO BID-TID x 10 days; >27kg: 500mg PO BID-TID x 10 days
  • Penicillin G Benzathine <27kg: 600,000 units IM x 1; >27kg: 1.2 million units IM x 1
  • PCN allergy (mild): Cephalexin 20mg/kg PO BID x 10 days (max 500mg/dose)
  • PCN allergy (mild): Cefadroxil 30mg/kg PO daily x 10 days (max 1g)
  • PCN allergy (severe): Azithromycin 12mg/kg PO day 1 (max 500mg), then 6mg/kg daily x 4 days (max 250mg)
  • PCN allergy (severe): Clindamycin 7mg/kg/dose PO TID x 10 days (max 300mg/dose)
  • PCN allergy (severe): Clarithromycin 7.5mg/kg PO BID x 10 days (max 250mg/dose)

Ludwig's Angina

Immunocompetent Host[25]

Pediatric Immunocompetent

Immunocompromised[26]

Pediatric Immunocompromised

Eye

Corneal Abrasion

Does Not Wear Contact Lens

Wears Contact Lens

Antibiotics should cover pseudomonas and favor 3rd or 4th generation fluoroquinolones

  • Levofloxacin 0.5% solution 2 drops ever 2 hours for 2 days THEN q6hrs for 5 days OR
  • Moxifloxacin 0.5% solution 2 drops every 2 hours for 2 days THEN q6hrs for 5 days OR
  • Tobramycin 0.3% solution 2 drops q6hrs for 5 days OR
  • Gatifloxacin 0.5% solution 2 drops every 2 hours for 2 days THEN q6hrs for 5 days OR
  • Gentamicin 0.3% solution 2 drops six times for 5 days

Pediatric

Same topical regimens as adults

  • Erythromycin 0.5% ointment applied QID x 3-5 days (preferred in young children)
  • Moxifloxacin 0.5% ophthalmic solution 1-2 drops QID x 5 days

Orbital Cellulitis

Pediatric:

GI

Clostridium Difficile

Moderate Infection

  • Vancomycin 125 mg PO four times daily for 10 days
  • Fidaxomicin 200 mg PO two times daily for 10 days
  • Metronidazole 500mg PO or IV three times daily for 10 days (third line therapy)

Pediatric:

  • Vancomycin 10mg/kg PO QID x 10 days (max 125mg/dose)
  • Fidaxomicin 200mg PO BID x 10 days (>12yr and >40kg); weight-based for younger
  • Metronidazole 7.5mg/kg PO/IV TID x 10 days (max 500mg/dose) (third line)

Serous Infection

Appendicitis

Zosyn 4.5g (100 mg/kg) IV Q6

OR

Flagyl 500mg (7.5mg/kg) IV Q6

PLUS

Ciprofloxacin 400mg IV Q12

Cholecystitis

Augmentin 3g IV Q6

OR

Imipenem/Cilastin 500mg IV Q6

Diverticulitis

Uncomplicated

First, consider whether antibiotics are needed:

  • In immunocompetent patients with mild uncomplicated diverticulitis (no systemic signs, able to tolerate PO, reliable follow-up), a trial of supportive care alone (bowel rest, hydration, pain control) without antibiotics is reasonable[27][28]
  • Antibiotics ARE indicated if: immunocompromised, significant comorbidities/frailty, CRP >140 mg/L, WBC >15 × 10⁹/L, refractory symptoms, vomiting, or CT showing fluid collection or longer segment of inflammation[27]

If antibiotics are prescribed (4-7 day course preferred):[27]

Preferred:

  • Amoxicillin/Clavulanate 875/125mg PO Q8hrs x 5 days (or Augmentin XR 2 tablets BID [each tablet 1gm amoxicillin 62.5mg clavulanate])[29][30]
    • Equally effective as fluoroquinolone + metronidazole with lower C. difficile risk (especially in patients ≥65 years)[30]
    • Avoids FDA black box fluoroquinolone risks (tendinopathy, neuropathy, aortic dissection, CNS effects)[31]

Alternatives (penicillin allergy or intolerance):

Complicated

Options:

Infectious Diarrhea

  • Empiric Treatment: Cipro 500mg PO Q12 x3d
  • Giardia: Flagyl 500mg PO Q8 x5d
  • C. diff: Flagyl 500mg PO Q8 x14d

Traveler's Diarrhea

Options for Adults:

Typhoid Fever

Oral therapy with Quinolone Susceptibility

Parenteral Therapy with Quinolone Susceptibility

Parenteral Therapy with Quinolone Resistance

if nalidixic acid resistant, assume fluoroquinolone resistant
OR
  • Cefixime 10-15 mg/kg IV q 12 hrs x 8 days

Oral Therapy with Quinolone Resistance

  • Azithromycin 1 g PO daily x 5 days
  • Amoxicillin Not 1st line treatment; 50-100mg/kg/day PO divided q6-8h x 14 days; First Dose: 12.5mg-33.3mg/kg PO x 1
  • Amoxicillin Not 1st line treatment; 50-100mg/kg/day PO divided q6-8h x 14 days

Pediatric

  • Ceftriaxone 50-80mg/kg IV daily x 10-14 days (max 2g)
  • Azithromycin 10-20mg/kg PO daily x 5-7 days (max 1g)
  • Cefixime 15-20mg/kg/day PO divided BID x 7-14 days (max 400mg/dose)

GU

Epididymitis

Age <35 (gonorrhea suspected)

Doxycycline 100mg PO Q12 x14d

PLUS

Cefixime 400mg PO once

Age >35 (gonorrhea not suspected)

Ciprofloxacin 500mg PO Q12 x14d

Cervicitis/Urethritis

Template:Urethritis antibiotics

PID

Ceftriaxone 250mg 1M once

PLUS

Doxycycline 100 mg PO Q12 x14d

UTI

===Outpatient=== Women, Uncomplicated

  • Nitrofurantoin ER 100mg BID x 5d, OR
  • TMP/SMX DS (160/800mg) 1 tab BID x 3d (Females) x7days (Males), OR
  • Cephalexin 250mg QID x 5d, OR
  • Ciprofloxacin 250mg BID x3d
    • Avoid using fluoroquinolone for the first-line treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections (UTIs) in women.[39]
  • Fosfomycin 3 g PO once
    • Lower clinical and microbiologic success compared to nitrofurantoin TID for 5 days [40]

Women, Complicated

Women, Concern for Urethritis

Men


===Inpatient Options=== *Ciprofloxacin 400mg IV q12hr, OR

Pediatric

  • TMP/SMX 6-12mg/kg/day (TMP) PO divided BID x 7-10 days
  • Cephalexin 25-50mg/kg/day PO divided q6-8h x 7-10 days (max 500mg/dose)
  • Nitrofurantoin 5-7mg/kg/day PO divided q6h x 7-10 days; avoid in infants <1 month
  • Cefpodoxime 10mg/kg/day PO divided BID (max 200mg/dose)
  • Cefixime 8mg/kg/day PO daily (max 400mg)

Pediatric Inpatient

Pulmonary

Pneumonia

Outpatient

Coverage targeted at S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, M. pneumoniae, C. pneumoniae, and Legionella

Healthy[41]

No comorbidities (chronic heart, lung, liver, or renal disease; diabetes mellitus; alcoholism; malignancy; or asplenia) and no risk factors for MRSA or Pseudomonas aeruginosa (include prior respiratory isolation of MRSA or P. aeruginosa or recent hospitalization AND receipt of parenteral antibiotics (in the last 90 d))

  • Amoxicillin 1 g three times daily (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence), OR
  • Doxycycline 100 mg twice daily (conditional recommendation, low quality of evidence), OR
  • Macrolide in areas with pneumococcal resistance to macrolides <25% (conditional recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
  • Duration of therapy 5 days minimum

Unhealthy[41]

If patient has comorbidities or risk factors for MRSA or Pseudomonas aeruginosa

  • Combination therapy:
    • Amoxicillin/Clavulanate
      • 500 mg/125 mg TID OR amox/clav 875 mg/125 mg BID OR 2,000 mg/125 mg BID. Duration is for a minimum of 5 days and varies based on disease severity and response to therapy; patients should be afebrile for ≥48 hours and clinically stable before therapy is discontinued[42]
    • OR cephalosporin
    • AND macrolide
      • Azithromycin 500 mg on first day then 250 mg daily
      • OR clarithromycin 500 mg BID OR clarithromycin ER 1,000 mg daily (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence for combination therapy)
    • OR doxycycline 100 mg BID (conditional recommendation, low quality of evidence for combination therapy)
  • Monotherapy: respiratory fluoroquinolone (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence):

Inpatient

  • Monotherapy or combination therapy is acceptable
  • Combination therapy includes a cephalosporin and macrolide targeting atypicals and Strep Pneumonia[43]
  • Adjunctive corticosteroids in severe CAP: The SCCM 2024 Focused Update strongly recommends corticosteroids for hospitalized adults with severe bacterial CAP (strong recommendation, moderate certainty)[44]
    • CAPE COD trial (NEJM 2023): Hydrocortisone 200 mg IV daily (50 mg q6h) in severe CAP requiring ICU/intermediate care → ↓ 28-day mortality (6.2% vs 11.9%, NNT ~18), ↓ intubation, ↓ vasopressor use[45]
    • Duration: 200 mg/day for 4–7 days based on clinical improvement, then tapered (total 8–14 days)
    • Excluded patients already in septic shock
    • No recommendation for or against steroids in less severe CAP[44]
    • Avoid in influenza pneumonia (without bacterial superinfection)[41]
  • Duration: Minimum 5 days; continue until clinically stable (temp ≤37.8°C, HR ≤100, RR ≤24, SBP ≥90, SpO2 ≥90% on RA, tolerating PO, baseline mental status) for ≥48 hours[41]
  • De-escalation: If empiric MRSA or Pseudomonas coverage was started, de-escalate to standard CAP therapy within 48 hours if cultures/MRSA nasal PCR are negative and patient is improving[41]

Community Acquired (Non-ICU)

Coverage against community acquired organisms plus M. catarrhalis, Klebsiella, S. aureus[41]

ICU, Low Risk of MRSA/Pseudomonas

ICU, Risk of Pseudomonas (without MRSA risk)

2019 guidelines recommend single antipseudomonal β-lactam (changed from double gram-negative coverage in 2007 guidelines)[41]

ICU, Risk of MRSA

Add MRSA coverage to appropriate regimen above[41]

  • Vancomycin 15–20 mg/kg IV q8-12h (target AUC/MIC 400-600) OR Linezolid 600 mg IV q12h
  • MRSA nasal PCR has a high negative predictive value (~95%); if negative, MRSA coverage can be safely discontinued[46]

Hospital Acquired Pneumonia (HAP)

Pneumonia developing ≥48 hours after hospital admission in non-intubated patients[47]

High risk of MRSA or high mortality risk (ventilatory support for HAP or septic shock)
Low risk of MRSA and low mortality risk

Ventilator Associated Pneumonia (VAP)

Pneumonia developing ≥48 hours after endotracheal intubation[47]

High risk of MRSA or IV antibiotics in the last 90 days or unit MRSA prevalence >10-20% or unknown
Low risk of MRSA and Pseudomonas (no risk factors for antimicrobial resistance, unit MRSA <10-20%)
  • Single antipseudomonal β-lactam monotherapy (from list above) is acceptable[47]
  • Duration: 7 days recommended[47]


Skin and Soft Tissue

Cellulitis/Superficial Abscess

Bactrim DS 2tab PO Q12 x5-10d

PLUS

Cephalexin 500mg PO Q6 x5-10

OR

Clindamycin 450mg PO Q8 x5-10d

Diabetic with systemic toxicity

Vancomycin 1g IV

PLUS

Unasyn 3g IV

OR

Zosyn 3.375g IV

Bioterrorism

Environmental Exposure

Immunocompromised

Neutropenic Fever

Zosyn 4.5g IV

OR

Meropenem 1g IV

PLUS/MINUS

Gentamicin 2mg/kg IV

ADD

Vancomycin 1g IV for catheter related infection, colonization with MRSA, gram-positive culture unknown susceptibility, suspected sepsis

Post Exposure Prophylaxis

Pediatric

See Antibiotics By Diagnosis (Peds)

Sepsis

Arthropod and Parasitic Infections

See Also

Source

  • University of Cincinnati Department of Emergency Medicine "Handbook of EM Fundamentals"
  1. ↑ Gosselin RA, Roberts I, Gillespie WJ. Antibioticsfor preventing infection in open limb fractures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;1:CD003764
  2. ↑ The NNT Review http://www.thennt.com/nnt/antibiotics-for-open-fractures/
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 ESC Task Force Guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infective endocarditis. European Heart Journal (2009) 30, 2369–2413 doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehp285 PDF
  4. ↑ AHA Pocket Card Dental Prophylaxis Endocarditis
  5. ↑ van de Beek D. et al. Advances in treatment of bacterial meningitis. Lancet. Nov 10 2012;380(9854):1693-702
  6. ↑ https://www.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/02/25/aapnews.20150225-1
  7. ↑ van de Beek D. et al. Advances in treatment of bacterial meningitis. Lancet. Nov 10 2012;380(9854):1693-702
  8. ↑ van de Beek D. et al. Advances in treatment of bacterial meningitis. Lancet. Nov 10 2012;380(9854):1693-702
  9. ↑ van de Beek D. et al. Advances in treatment of bacterial meningitis. Lancet. Nov 10 2012;380(9854):1693-702
  10. ↑ [Guideline] Chaudhuri A, Martinez-Martin P, Kennedy PG, et al. EFNS guideline on the management of community-acquired bacterial meningitis: report of an EFNS Task Force on acute bacterial meningitis in older children and adults. Eur J Neurol. 2008 Jul. 15(7):649-59.
  11. ↑ van de Beek D. et al. Advances in treatment of bacterial meningitis. Lancet. Nov 10 2012;380(9854):1693-702
  12. ↑ Clinical Practice Guideline: Acute Otitis Externa Executive Summary. Otolaryngology -- Head and Neck Surgery 2014 150: 161 DOI: 10.1177/0194599813517659 PDF
  13. ↑ Wright, C. et al. Ototoxicity of neomycin and polymyxin B following middle ear application in the chinchilla and baboon. Am J Otol. 1987 Nov;8(6):495-9.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Shulman, et al. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis: 2012 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2012;55(10):1279–82
  15. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  16. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  17. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  18. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  19. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  20. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  21. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  22. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  23. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  24. ↑ CDC Website, accessed 2026-28-01. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/strep-throat.html
  25. ↑ Barton E, Blair A. Ludwig's Angina. J Emerg Med. 2008. 34(2): 163-169.
  26. ↑ Spitalnic SJ, Sucov A. Ludwig's angina: case report and review. J Emerg Med. 1995;13:499-503
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Peery AF, Shaukat A, Strate LL. AGA Clinical Practice Update on Medical Management of Colonic Diverticulitis: Expert Review. Gastroenterology. 2021;160(3):906-911.e1. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2020.09.059
  28. ↑ Qaseem A, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Acute Left-Sided Colonic Diverticulitis: A Clinical Guideline From the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2022;175(3):399-415.
  29. ↑ Balasubramanian I et al. Out-Patient Management of Mild or Uncomplicated Diverticulitis: A Systematic Review. Dig Surg. 2017;34(2):151-160.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Gaber CE, Kinlaw AC, Edwards JK, et al. Comparative Effectiveness and Harms of Antibiotics for Outpatient Diverticulitis: Two Nationwide Cohort Studies. Ann Intern Med. 2021;174(6):737-746. doi:10.7326/M20-6315
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA updates warnings for oral and injectable fluoroquinolone antibiotics due to disabling side effects. July 26, 2016.
  32. ↑ Wilkins T et al. Diagnosis and Management of Acute Diverticulitis. Am Fam Physician. 2013 May 1;87(9):612-620.
  33. ↑ Hoge CW. et al. Trends in antibiotic resistance among diarrheal pathogens isolated in Thailand over 15 years. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:341–5
  34. ↑ Steffen R, et al. Traveler's Diarrhea: A Clinical Review. JAMA. 2015;313(1):71-80. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.17006
  35. ↑ Sanders JW. et al. An observational clinic-based study of diarrheal illness in deployed United States military personnel in Thailand: presentation and outcome of Campylobacter infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002;67:533–8
  36. ↑ Steffen R, et al. Traveler's Diarrhea: A Clinical Review. JAMA. 2015;313(1):71-80. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.17006
  37. ↑ Steffen R, et al. Traveler's Diarrhea: A Clinical Review. JAMA. 2015;313(1):71-80. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.17006
  38. ↑ DuPont HL. et al. Rifaximin versus ciprofloxacin for the treatment of traveler's diarrhea: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:1807–15
  39. ↑ Choosing Wisely. American Urogynecologic Society. http://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-urogynecologic-society
  40. ↑ Huttner, A., Kowalczyk, A., Turjeman, A., Babich, T., Brossier, C., Eliakim-Raz, N., … Harbarth, S. (2018). Effect of 5-Day Nitrofurantoin vs Single-Dose Fosfomycin on Clinical Resolution of Uncomplicated Lower Urinary Tract Infection in Women: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 319(17), 1781–1789.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 41.6 41.7 41.8 Diagnosis and Treatment of Adults with Community-acquired Pneumonia. An Official Clinical Practice Guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019 Oct 1;200(7):e45-e67
  42. ↑ IDSA. Mandell 2007
  43. ↑ Chokshi R, Restrepo MI, Weeratunge N, Frei CR, Anzueto A, Mortensen EM. Monotherapy versus combination antibiotic therapy for patients with bacteremic Streptococcus pneumoniae community-acquired pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. Jul 2007;26(7):447-51
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Chaudhuri D, Nei AM, Rochwerg B, et al. 2024 Focused Update: Guidelines on Use of Corticosteroids in Sepsis, Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, and Community-Acquired Pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2024;52(5):e219-e233.
  45. ↑ Dequin PF, Meziani F, Quenot JP, et al. Hydrocortisone in Severe Community-Acquired Pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(21):1931-1941.
  46. ↑ Parente DM, Cunha CB, Engemann AM, et al. The Clinical Utility of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Nasal Screening to Rule Out MRSA Pneumonia: A Diagnostic Meta-analysis With Antimicrobial Stewardship Implications. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67(1):1-7.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M et al. Management of Adults With Hospital-acquired and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Sep 1;63(5):e61-e111.
  48. ↑ Luther MK, Timbrook TT, Caffrey AR, Dosa D, Lodise TP, LaPlante KL. Vancomycin Plus Piperacillin-Tazobactam and Acute Kidney Injury in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(1):12-20.
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